B202 TMA01 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

B202 TMA01 - Essay Example It is applied when there is a new employee who takes a new position in an organization. This process involves a new worker being introduced to his or her managers, supervisors and colleagues. They are also shown new ways of doing things, new environment and the employment conditions to help them learn the job. For instance, at the workplace, one is introduced to the orientation on; the job requirements, office layout, local workplace issues or customs, health and safety information and the workstation. It also involves the use electronic mail and communication system, working conditions, processes and procedures. Apprenticeship is another training program where an agreement is established between a person (apprentice) who wishes to learn a skill and an employer who needs skilled employees. Apprenticeship is an industry -based learning system that involves combining the on-the -job experience with the theory learnt in the classroom. For example in an institution, apprenticeship for learners in a technical classroom may be a continuation from the secondary school system and then followed by successive years of on-the-job-training. When the apprentice completes the specified training period, a certificate of qualification is awarded. Shadowing is the type of training where individuals are given a chance to broaden their knowledge and understanding of a particular role that concerns their current department or other departments. In organizations for instance, it involves making observations on the day to day aspects of the roles, asking questions on various work practices and sharing of the best approaches that can improve on the performance of employees of an organization. Mentoring is the kind of developmental relationship whereby a person who has a long experience in a given field of study assists a person with less experience. At the workplace for instance, mentoring can take place in form of interacting face to face with persons that need constant help on how to carry out their activities. Coaching is a way through which a group of people are directed, instructed and trained with the aim of achieving a particular goal or the development of specific skills. For instance, when people are directed, it involves motivational speaking while training may involve the attending of workshops, seminars and supervised practice (Carter, and McMahon, 2005: 192). Job rotation is a situation whereby there is a lateral transfer of employees among the different positions and tasks within the workplace with the aim of acquiring different skills and responsibilities. In job rotation, the workers are given an opportunity to learn several different skills and perform those duties for a specific time period. In essence, job rotation enables individuals to gain some experience at the various phases in a business to expand their perspectives. For instance, at the senior management it may be done in readiness for a succession plan while at the lower management level job rotation may be done to ensure skill enhancement and also promotions. Tesco Supermarket It is a British supermarket with profits surpassing over billions of dollars. It has employees who are over 400,000 in number and the number of stores exceeds 3,720. It generally deals with foods, drinks, software, financial services, insurance, dental plans, electronics, clothing and internet services. Training at Tesco

International business activities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

International business activities - Essay Example ic transaction processes and when they unfold on the international, cross-cultural level, they become even more challenging (Neslin and Greenhalgh, 1983; Gulbro and Herbig, 1994; Gilsdorf, 1997; Foroughi, 1998; Kumar, Markeset and Kumar, 2005). This is largely because, within the context of IB, negotiations move from the level of reaching an agreement between individuals who have comparable world views to reaching a compromise between cultures whose representatives may have divergent world views, including conflicting values (Bjerke, 2006). The implication here is that IB paradigms must be culturally sensitive and adaptable, on the one hand, and culturally-informed, on the other (Bjerke, 2006). Turning to TQM, one finds that it embrace cultural sensitivity as a direct outcome of its consumer focus (Collins, 2005). The paradigm itself is premised on the supposition that if corporations are to succeed in diverse cultural environments and to successfully engage in cross-cultural negotia tions, they have to embrace the culture of the environment in question, be it of their consumers or their business partners, and redefine themselves as insiders, rather than outsiders (Collins, 2005; Bjerke, 2006). Its embrace of sociology, therefore, marks TQM as highly well-suited to international businesses and, as a root discipline, is fundamental to the success of IB. As international business unfolds within the context of a global, as opposed to a national economy, international economics emerges as another fundamental root discipline. IB scholars acknowledge the presence of a synergetic and dynamic relationship between international economics and international business. On the one hand, IB is inextricably dependant on the health of the global economy for its own development,... International business activities International business, which has both been facilitated by and imposed upon firms by the advent of globalization, may be briefly defined as the global exchange of goods and services, or cross border economic transactions. As a number of scholars have quite rightly pointed out, international business is the internationalization and the concomitant expansion of the scope of traditional business activities. Within this context, it may also be defined as a natural evolution in the development of the scope of business activities, from the intra-tribal to the inter-tribal, from the intra-township to the inter-township and from the national to the international (Wiles and Wiles, 2005; Carbaugh, 2005; Marx, 2006; Sundaram and Black, 2007). The implication here is that while international business is founded upon the same precepts and principles of traditional/national business and, accordingly, withstands adherence to the same management paradigms, the significant expansion of its parameters and sphere of activities necessitates the embrace of sociology, international economics, politics and linguistics, to name but a few disciplines. On the basis of the foregoing discussion, TQM emerged as an ideal international business paradigm, largely because it embraces and addresses IB’s concerns. This was demonstrated through reference to three of its root disciplines, international economics, sociology and organizational theory.

This essay compares and contrasts the political philosophy of Hobbes and Locke Essay Example for Free

This essay compares and contrasts the political philosophy of Hobbes and Locke Essay In this paper, I will examine the political philosophies of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. I will investigate both mens ideas individually and offer my own views on their theories. I will conclude the paper by comparing and contrasting the notions introduced in their respective writings. Thomas Hobbes was born in Wiltshire, England in 1588. He lived in one of the most unsettled periods in English history. Following a rebellion against King Charles, there resulted a civil war, which began in 1642. As a consequence of this political instability, Hobbes was forced into exile in November of 1640. He remained abroad living on the continent for approximately eleven years. During this period he worked and conversed with many of the great philosophers of his time. It was while in Paris in 1640 that Hobbes finally matured the plan for his own philosophical work. It was to consist of three treatises, dealing respectively with matter or body, with human nature, and with society. It was his intention, he says, to have dealt with these issues in this order, but his country was in turmoil with concerns regarding the rights of dominion, and the obedience due from the sovereigns subjects. As a result of this, Hobbes began instead with his examination of society. When stable government seemed to have been re-established by the Commonwealth, he had his ideas published in London. The same year, 1651, saw the publication of his greatest work, Leviathan, and his own return to England, which now promised a safer shelter to the philosopher than France, where he feared the clergy and was no longer in favour with the remnant of the exiled English court. The last twenty-eight years of Hobbes long life were spent in England. Hobbes philosophy can be described as materialistic, and mechanicalistic. He believed everything is matter. One cannot differentiate between matter, life and mind. To describe social reality, Hobbes would argue, is like describing physics or biology. It is concerned with matter in motion. He argued that all human life and all human thought are to be understood quite simply as matter in motion. In this regard Galileo heavily influenced his thinking. Hobbes identified two distinguishable types of motion. These he defined as vital motion and voluntary motion. I will not indulged heavily into these notions, except to say, that Hobbes believed that the ultimate goal in all human motion is toward self-preservation. Basically what he is saying is that all motion is a result of fear of death. Although reason plays a significant role according to Hobbes, it is largely a regulatory instrument to these basic motions (1). Hobbes philosophical ideas are largely portrayed in his text, Leviathan. In this piece, he discloses the fact that he feels the evils of absolute power is still better than living in a society without that ultimate overseer. Perhaps as a result of the turbulent time in which he lived, Hobbes had an almost chronic fear of living within a chaotic society. It was his belief that a society without an absolute leader would be, or eventually become a chaotic one. Hobbes gives us a psychological explanation for why he believes this to be so. In his opinion, all people are by nature selfish and egoistic. As all men are selfish, and wish only to satisfy their own needs, competition for resources inevitably occurs. Resources are not infinite in amount, but are limited in their availability. As a result, Hobbes argues that conflict between men over these resources is unavoidable. Hobbes refers to people living in this state of nature as natural man (Hobbes, Pt 1, Ch 11). In his brief introduction to the Leviathan, Hobbes describes the State as an organism analogous to a large person. He shows how each part of the state parallels the function of the parts of the human body. He notes that the first part of his project is to describe human nature, in so far as humans are the creators of the state. To this end, he advises that we look into ourselves to see the nature of humanity in general. Hobbes argues that, in the absence of social condition, every action we perform, no matter how charitable or benevolent, is done for reasons, which are ultimately self-serving. For example, when I donate to charity, I am actually taking delight in demonstrating my powers, in its most extreme form; this view of human nature has since been termed Psychological Egoism. Hobbes believes that any account of human action, including morality, must be consistent with the fact that we are all self-serving. Hobbes speculates how selfish people would behave in a state of nature, prior to the formation of any government. He begins noting that humans are essentially equal, both mentally and physically, in so far as even the weakest person has the strength to kill the strongest. Given our equal standing, Hobbes continues by noting how situations in nature make us naturally prone to quarrel. There are three natural causes of disagreement among people: competition for limited supplies of material possessions, distrust of one another, and glory in so far as people remain hostile to preserve their powerful reputation. Given the natural causes of conflict, Hobbes concludes that the natural condition of humans is a state of perpetual war of all against all, where no morality exists, and everyone lives in constant fear (Hobbes Pt 1, Ch 13). Under such conditions, there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain; and consequently no culture of the earth, no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building, no instruments of moving and removing such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth, no account of time, no arts, no letters, no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short. Hobbes continues offering proofs that the state of nature would be as brutal as he describes. We see signs of this in the mistrust we show of others in our daily lives. In countries, which have yet to be civilized, people are barbaric to each other. Finally, in the absence of international law, strong countries prey on the vulnerability of weak countries. Humans have three motivations for ending this state of war: the fear of death, the desire to have an adequate living, and the hope to attain this through ones labour. Nevertheless, until the state of war ends, each person has a right to everything, including another persons life (Ibid). In articulating the peace-securing process, Hobbes draws on the language of the natural law tradition of morality, which was then championed by Dutch philosopher Hugo Grotius (1583-1645). According to Grotius, all particular moral principles derive from immutable principles of reason. Since these moral mandates are fixed in nature, they are thus called laws of nature. By using the terminology of the natural law theory, Hobbes is suggesting that, from human self-interest and social agreement alone, one can derive the same kinds of laws, which Grotius believes are immutably fixed in nature (2). Throughout his discussion of morality, Hobbes continually re-defines traditional moral terms, such as right, liberty, contract and justice, in ways which reflects his account of self-interest and social agreement (Hobbes Pt 1, Ch 14). For Grotius and other natural law theorists, a law of nature is an unchangeable truth, which establishes proper conduct. Hobbes defines a law of nature as follows: A Law of Nature (lex naturalis) is a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life, or takes away the means of preserving the same; and to omit that by which he thinks it may be best preserved. Hobbes continues by listing specific laws of nature all of which aim at preserving a persons life. Hobbess first three Laws of Nature are the most important since they establish the overall framework for putting an end to the state of nature. Given our desire to get out of the state of nature, and thereby preserve our lives, Hobbes concludes that we should seek peace. This becomes his first law of nature (Ibid). That every man ought to endeavour peace as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek and use all helps and advantages of war; the first branch of which rule contains the first fundamental Law of Nature, which is, to seek peace and follow it. The second law of nature advocates the position that man in this state is entitled to defend himself (Ibid). The mutual transferring of these rights is called a covenant and is the basis of the notion of moral obligation and duty. For example, I agree to give up my right to steal from you, if you give up your right to steal from me. We have then transferred these rights to each other and thereby become obligated to not steal from each other. From selfish reasons alone, we are both motivated to mutually transfer these and other rights, since this will end the dreaded state of war between us. Hobbes continues by discussing the validity of certain contracts. For example, contracts made in the state of nature are not generally binding, for, if I fear that you will violate your part of the bargain, then no true agreement can be reached. No contracts can be made with animals since animals cannot understand an agreement. Most significantly, I cannot contract to give up my right to self-defence since self-defence is my sole motive for entering into any contract (Ibid). Hobbes derives his laws of nature deductively, modelled after the type of reasoning used in geometry. That is, from a set of general principles, more specific principles are logically derived. Hobbess general principles are: that people pursue only their own self-interest, the equality of people, the causes of quarrel, the natural condition of war, and the motivations for peace. From these he derives the above two laws, along with at least 13 others. Simply making contracts will not in and of itself secure peace. We also need to keep the contracts we make, and this is Hobbes third law of nature. Hobbes notes a fundamental problem underlying all covenants: as selfish people, each of us will have an incentive to violate a contract when it serves our best interests. For example, it is in the mutual best interest of Murphy and I to agree to not steal from each other. However, it is also in my best interests to break this contract and steal from Murphy if I can get away with it and what complicates matters more, Murphy is also aware of this fact. Thus, it seems that no covenant can ever get off the ground. This difficulty is overcome by giving unlimited power to a political sovereign who will punish us if we violate our covenants. Again, it is from purely selfish reasons that I agree to set up a policing power, which will potentially punish me if I deviate from the agreement (Hobbes, Pt 1, Ch 15). As noted, Hobbes first three Laws of Nature establish the overall framework for putting an end to the state of nature. The remaining laws give content to the earlier ones by describing more precisely the kinds of covenants, which will preserve peace. For example, the fourth law is to show gratitude toward those who comply with covenants. Otherwise people will regret that they complied when someone is ungrateful. Similarly, the fifth law is that we should be accommodating to the interests of society. For, if we quarrel over every minor issue, then this will interrupt the peace process. Briefly, here are the remaining laws: cautious pardoning of those who commit past offences; the purpose of punishment is to correct the offender not an eye for an eye retribution; avoid direct or indirect signs of hatred or contempt of another; avoid pride; retain only those rights which you would acknowledge in others; be equitable; share in common that which cannot be divided, such as rivers; items which cannot be divided or enjoyed in common should be assigned by lot; mediators of peace should have safe conduct; resolve disputes through an arbitrator. Hobbes explains that there are other possible laws, which are less important such as those against drunkenness, which tends to the destruction of particular people. At the close of Chapter 15, Hobbes states that morality consists entirely of these Laws of Nature, which are arrived at through social contract. Contrary to Aristotles account of virtue ethics, Hobbes adds that moral virtues are relevant to ethical theory only in so far as they promote peace. Outside of this function, virtues have no moral significance. Hobbes continues in Chapter 17 by arguing that in order to ensure covenants and peace, power must be given to one person or one assembly. We do this by saying, implicitly, I authorise and give up my right of governing myself, to this person or to this assembly of people, on this condition, that thou give up thy right to him, and authorise all his actions in like manner. His definition of a commonwealth, then, is this: One person, of whose acts a great multitude, by mutual covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the author, to the end he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their peace and common defence This person is called a sovereign. He continues that there are two ways of establishing a commonwealth: through acquisition, or through institution. In Chapter18 Hobbes lists the rights of rights of sovereigns. They are, subjects owe him sole loyalty, subjects cannot be freed from their obligation, dissenters must consent with the majority in declaring a sovereign, sovereign cannot be unjust or injure any subject, the sovereign cannot be put to death, the sovereign has the right to censor doctrines repugnant to peace, legislative power of prescribing rules, judicial power of deciding all controversies, make war and peace with other nations, choose counsellors, power of reward and punishment, power of all civil appointments, including the militia. In Chapter 19 he discusses the kinds of governments that can be instituted. The three main forms are monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He argues that monarchy is best for several reasons. Monarchs interests are the same as the peoples. He will receive better counsel since he can select experts and get advice in private. His policies will be more consistent. Finally, there is less chance of a civil war since the monarch cannot disagree with himself. His overriding belief here is that the sovereign, most likely a king, will only have the best interests of his subjects at heart, as he, Hobbes argues, is only as wealthy as his country. Rather inconsistently when you consider his theory overall, Hobbes also grants certain rights, or liberties to the subjects living within his monarchist society. These liberties, as you might expect, are established to ensure the right of the subject to self-preservation. Therefore, if the sovereign unnecessarily places the life of the subject in peril, either directly or indirectly, the covenant has in effect been broken, or the subject is free to disembark from the agreement. The subject is expected to defend his country from attack, should that occur, despite the danger it may entail for his life. However, he is not obliged, for instance to testify against himself in court, as that would quite obviously be counter to his desire for self-preservation. This concept was incorporated in the United States Constitution in the form of the Fifth Amendment, and many upstanding members of society have enjoyed its benefits since, including Al Capone, Jimmy Hoffa, and most recently Junior Soprano! Another idea introduced by Hobbes which was embraced by the United States legal system, as well as our own, was his belief that the subject had the right to sue the sovereign if his needs were not met. Hobbes theory has often been criticised quite severely and I believe rightly so. His individualistic perspective suggests that our self-preservation is the dominant motivation in our lives. Society exists, if we are to believe Hobbes theory, simply as a method of ensuring our self-interest, or at least maximising it. His theory is built on the premise of mutual trust, yet the society would collapse without the threat of sanctions imposed by the sovereign. So, in fact it is not trust that is the raft that keeps society afloat, rather it is obviously fear. The most disturbing fact in regard to his theory, I believe, is Hobbes notion that society arises largely as a result of our selfish ways. He suggests that we are egoistic, as we as being are driven by our desires. It seems that he does not seriously consider the fact that our desires could incorporate any notions of legitimately, and unselfishly wanting to help others. This in my opinion is rather bizarre. There are other aspects to Hobbes theory that I find difficult to comprehend. His assertion that a monarchy offers us the best option for government is ludicrous to say the least, and his arguments to support this position are feeble at best. I will address just one of them here, to prove my point. In the course of his dialogue, Hobbes makes the claim that the best possible way to ensure that the constantly changing desires and needs of subjects are met, is to have a King or Queen as sovereign. When you consider some of the monarchies of our day, I will draw particular attention to the British monarchy, and how out of touch they are with their subjects, I think that it is fair to say that Hobbes opinions on this issue is almost laughable. Another aspect of Hobbes political philosophy that I find particularly disconcerting is his belief that conflict must never occur between subjects and their sovereign. Often, if not always, change only occurs as a result of conflict. Without conflict, we might never develop and advance significantly as societies. Revolutionary leader Thomas Jefferson said: The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is natural manure (3). I believe that the threat of revolt is always necessary in order to keep leaders firmly in tune with the needs of their citizens. The final comment I will make on Hobbes work on this matter relates to the fact that I believe his theory is extremely defeatist in essence. Basically, Hobbes theory is built on the foundation that we desire peace so much that we should be willing to accept the evils of absolute power, or even dictatorship in order to maintain it. John Locke was born in Somerset, England in 1632. Like Hobbes, he lived in a period of great political instability. He was forced to flee England twice as a result of this situation, however, unlike Hobbes; he was not soared against mankind as a consequence. In his major political works, his Two Treatise on Civil Government, he attempts to justify the revolution of King William of Orange against the legitimate monarch, King James II. In the first of these two treatise, Lockes purpose is to attack the ideas of pro-royalist; Sir Robert Filmer, and specifically his theory put forward in his work; The Patriarch. In the Second Treatise on Civil Government, Locke puts forth his own ideas on the establishment of a democratic government. The focus of this piece shall be in the analysis of this work, as it displays Lockes own thoughts and believes. Locke developed the theoretical argument that became the basis for democracy, as we know it today within the western world. His ideas were to become the building blocks for the development of the constitution in both the United States of America and France. In fact, sections of his writings appear almost word for word in the United States Constitution and Declaration of Independence. The influence of his ideas on todays world cannot be understated. In examining Lockes ideas, I also hope to demonstrate how distinctly different his thoughts often are from Hobbes. There are a few similarities between the two mens work however. For one, Locke, like his predecessor Hobbes, begins his work by giving what he believes is the historical description of how governments came into existence. In the same way as Hobbes, Locke commences by examining the relevance of the social contract to the establishment of government. Also corresponding to Hobbes he discusses the state of nature. However, Locke believes that the fundamental mistake in Hobbes theory is in his ideas introduced on this issue. Lockes state of nature is a largely peaceful one. Men live side-by-side, own property, possessions, and are free to do with these as they please. He rejects Hobbes notion that men are as a rule selfish, but rather thinks of a situation were many times people cooperate with each other, but unfortunately sometimes they are egoistic, but not always. For Locke, the law of nature that governs behaviour within this state, is quite simple. People should not harm others in his life, health, liberty or possessions (Locke, Ch 2). Life within the state of nature for Locke is a life of perfect freedom. Its moral order is overseen by the law of nature, which is God-given, and exists independent of any constitution or society. Essential to this moral well being, are the natural rights of the people living within this state. These entitlements include that of life, liberty, property and also the authority to reprimand those who violate the natural law. It is difficult for individuals to do this alone, and so it is as a result of this factor, according to Locke that we were forced to vacate the state of nature, and establish societies. When a person breaks the law of nature, it is essential, he believes, to have the institutions in place to be able to punish the person, or persons in a fair and just manner. It is due to this fact that man originally voluntarily agreed to create society in order to have these institutions established (Ibid). These institutions that had to be erected had a number of goals, or objectives, which it needed to fulfill. Firstly, laws had to be created that reflected the needs of the population. In addition, these laws must become relatively fixed within the framework of that society, to the extent that those who would come under their influence would know them. Locke also felt that it was imperative to have at the core of these legal institutions impartial judges, who would have both knowledge of the law and authority to adjudicate in legal disputes. Finally, Locke rightly believed that all of this would be pointless unless the society had in place the resources to enforce these laws. If it did not, then quite simply the laws would not be followed (Ibid). Locke also discusses what he calls his state of war, which is very similar to Hobbes state of nature. In this state, there are no common judges or established institutions of law. Locke describes an environment where the fittest survive. This state of war can exist both inside a society and outside the bounds of it. It occurs when somebody, or some group, attempts to acquire resources solely as a result of their power. Opposition to such tyrants, according to Locke, is not only justified, but he would even argue that at times it is completely necessary for the maintenance of the society. If an issue such as this is not addressed, life will simply revert back to the conditions experienced within the state of nature (Locke, Ch 3). The accounts I have already given of the consensual agreement among citizens to establish legal institutions to oversee the upholding of the law are the basic rudiments of democracy. Laws within such a democracy are created only after long deliberation, and are not invented on the spur of the moment. This is often the case under the rule of monarchies, according to Locke, were laws are created and destroyed at will to simply fulfil the wishes of the sovereign. Furthermore, laws within a democracy will be created by representatives of the people and so, Locke argues, should clearly reflect the wishes of the society with whom they represent. An interesting fact built into Lockes theory, is his belief that certain aspects of human behaviour should not come under the influence of governmental control. He referred to these as rights. This particular notion of Lockes was another aspect of his theory incorporated in many national constitutions. The most notable of these, is The Bill of Rights of the United States Constitution. The bill of rights grants those living in the United States certain undeniable rights, such as the right to free speech, the right to choose where one worships, and also the right to bare arms to mention a few. Also included within The Bill of Rights is the right to own private property. Again, this is another aspect of Lockes theory that he gave particular emphasis to within his work (Locke, Ch 5). Locke considered property to be much more than just material substance. He believed property to actually be part of oneself, as it is clearly the fruit of your own labour. Throughout his writings, property is used in a much broader sense than the dictionary definition of the word. It is usually referred to as meaning such things as life and liberty. Therefore, Locke argues that to attempt to take an individuals property from them, it is much more than simply theft. Instead, he maintains that it is an assault on you as a person. This particular opinion on property is very different from the beliefs expressed by Hobbes. For him, property is a creation of society. Furthermore, he insists that no person can claim anything as his own within the state of nature. What you own is only yours for as long as you are strong enough to hold onto it. Lockes ideas were obviously in marked contrast to those put forward by Hobbes regarding property. Locke believed that we were all created equal in nature; therefore, society had no right to take from us what nature had given to us initially. This conception was advanced further and indeed incorporated into law. It is of course the NOTION that we are all equal in the eyes of the law. I deliberately highlighted the word NOTION, because I believe that is all it is, and the truth in reality is actually far from this (Ibid). The most democratic aspect of Lockes theory is incorporated in his ideas that when we departed from the state of nature, we voluntarily gave up some of our personnel rights to the government. Specifically, the right to punish those who transgress the law. This right is given to the executive who is appointed by the people and is therefore responsible to them. Lockes government is almost like a secretary for the mass population. Acting like a secretary, the government should simply do the jobs required by, or requested by the people. If the government does not fulfil the wishes of the population, Locke maintained, they should be removed from office. For Locke, power lies with the people. Revolution by the people is not to be ruled out if the government has to be removed for not fulfilling the wishes of its citizens (Locke, Ch 8). In order to prevent abuse of power by the government, or indeed any one area of it, Locke introduced the idea of dividing the government into three branches. Each branch has the capability to influence, and if necessary, restrain the other branch or branches of government. The different strands of government he established were the executive, legislature and federative. Again, these branches of government are remarkably similar to those used in the United States. The executive and legislature proposed by Locke are very similar to those used in the U. S. government. Lockes federative branch was intended to deal with foreign negotiations, and does not in fact exists in the U. S. government framework. The third element of government there is called the judicial and deals with the legal applications of government. The overall goal of using three branches of government is nonetheless very similar in purpose; in that its aims are restrict power from becoming to great within any one branch (Locke, Ch 12). Locke was particularly concerned with the executive gaining too much power. As a result, it is the legislature who is granted the greatest power and influence within government. The legislature makes the laws and the executive is only charged with enforcing these laws. Therefore, the ability of the executive is severely restricted by the limitations of the laws sent down from the legislature. Another interesting aspect of Lockes desire to restrict the executive is his belief that they could be removed from their office by the legislature should they defy the rules of that office. Again, an idea very similar to this is found within the scheme of the United States government. Impeachment proceeding can be taking against any member of the civil government, if they are believed to have broken any rules of their office. In the history of the country, impeachment proceeding has been introduced against three presidents. These affairs, overseen by the House of Representatives determine whether there is sufficient evidence against the accused to warrant a trial before the Senate. None of the three presidents were ever convicted of the charges against them. President Andrew Jackson was taken to trial before the Senate, but failed to be convicted by one vote. President Richard Nixon resigned from his office before proceeding could really get under way, following the fallout from the Watergate Scandal. Most recently, President Bill Clinton survived a vote in the House of Representatives and so was not forced to undergo a legal trial before the Senate. I believe Lockes theory is a substantial improvement on that proposed by Hobbes. Locke correctly identifies the two major weaknesses I see in Hobbes theory. They are centred on his believes that man is innately selfish, or egoistic, and so is motivated solely by self-interest, and also his believe that man can live stably and securely under the sovereign leadership of a monarch. He fails to convince me on either of these points. Despite the fact that I see much to be praised about Lockes theory, I feel that there are certain frailties that should be addressed, and I will conclude this essay by those that I feel are most significant. Essential too much of Lockes theory is his belief that living within the state of nature, we have certain rights, which he insists should be transferred to the societal or governmental level. Locke provides little evidence to offer support for the significance he places on these rights, and the evidence he does provide is certainly not totally convincing. Concerning opinion on social contract, Locke fails to identify his position on the double contract, and seems to tactfully dodge this difficult issue. Although certainly not nearly as individualist as Hobbes, Lockes theory does seem to lean in favour of the individual, rather than towards the genuine concerns of the group as a whole. One notion within his theory in particular seems to suggest this standpoint most clearly. His belief that we consent to joining society, definitely suggest to me that one is doing so for ones own good, and any thoughts of common good, are secondary at best. Finally, Lockes belief that government and society should be built on the premise that the majority rule, at first glimpse appears fair. This idea certainly was an enormous step forward from the ideas of those who came before him, going all the back to the ancients. However, often within democracies this notion is taking too literally and the majority rule only while considering their own interests and not those of the society as a whole. Minorities are treated like second-class citizens. Evidence of such behaviour can easily be found even within our own borders in Northern Ireland. Endnotes: 1. Gauthier, D. Hobbes, A Companion to the Philosophers. (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2001), 305. 2. Blackburn, S. Dictionary of Philosophy. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 163. 3. Darwin, B. (Ed. ) The Oxford Library of Words Phrases. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 130. Note: All other quotations cited throughout this essay are taken from: 4. Hobbes, T. Leviathan, Classics of Moral Political Theory. (Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company Inc. , 1996, 2nd Ed. ). 5. Locke, J. Two Treatises of Civil Gover.

The Absorption Costing Approach to Cost-Plus Pricing

The Absorption Costing Approach to Cost-Plus Pricing Allocating a fair and proper price to a product or service may be a tricky balancing act for a company. Many firms have an ongoing struggle with setting their pricing strategies. It is a well known fact that the success of any product or service relies straight on the ability to sell them which anon directly depends on the correct pricing strategy (Bosse, 2009). The pricing cannot be just randomly guessed by the company. There are several measures that ought to be considered while forming the pricing strategy. By implementing creative judgments and intensifying the awareness of consumer motivation, a company can seize the market. Pricing is not merely a marketing, financial or operational decision; instead it influences all aspects of the firm (Petersn, 2008). Preliminary Situation for Pricing Erner (2010) mentions two possible situations to consider for pricing: The first one declares that the product in question has several competitors who offer products with less differentiation. Hence a market price already exists. In this case customers will not purchase products with high market prices. Therefore the company does not have to conduct extensive research about the pricing strategy as they already have a guideline present. The second situation indicates that the market price does not exist. Herein the product does not have any direct competitors and no pricing standards are available. The company has to decide how to price its products or services. In such a position the company must emphasize more on market research, customer perception, costing, price testing etc. (Hilton, 2009). The Absorption Cost Approach to Cost-Plus Pricing For pricing decisions accounting information can be used especially if the firm is a leader in the market or a price-maker. As there is hardly time for analyzing demand and marginal cost for each product or service thoroughly, managers have to depend on a swift and unsophisticated method for determining prices. Therefore companies apply the Cost-Plus Pricing (CPP) method in which the total cost of the product or service adds a margin to ascertain the selling price (Hilton, 2009). However many companies are price-takers as they set their prices according to the market leaders and have to follow the market, adjusting their prices due to competition. Even in such cases understanding costs supports making managerial decisions e.g. which and how many products or services should be produced (Pietersz, n.g.). To give a considerable return on the stockholders investment the determined price in pricing standard products must cover all costs such as production, administrative, fixed and variab le sales cost (Erner, 2010). As this should not be the case the business will bear losses and may not even be extant. Comprehending the companys marketing strategy is required for applying cost information in pricing decisions (Collier, 2009). COST + MARK UP = SELLING PRICE (Ingram, Albright, Hill, 2003) Determine the Cost Coverage Before adding a desired profit margin the full costs  [1]  for each product or service has to be calculated (Ingram, Albright, Hill, 2003). Flowingly the company has to underline the cost coverage that can be done by the Absorption Cost Approach (ACA) or the Contribution Approach (CA) (Erner, 2010). In the pricing decision the unit cost of a completed product is a key measure. The so called Unit Product Cost (UPC) stipulates the value of goods inventory completed and the cost of sold goods (Tatum, n.g.). On the one side variable costing classes costs according to their behavior into variable or fixed. For determining the UPC variable costing only includes costs directly varied to production i.e. direct material and direct labor cost as also the variable manufacturing overhead. The fixed manufacturing overhead costs are dealt like period expenses i.e. expense them like selling and administration cost in the period in which they incur. Fixed costs are not regarded in variable UPC. On the other side absorption costing classes the costs according to their function either into manufacturing or non-manufacturing costs. For calculating the UPC by applying the ACA all manufacturing costs, variable or fixed, are included (Ingram, Albright, Hill, 2003). Contribution Approach In the CA the cost base consists of the variable expenses associated with a product. The mark-up used must include the fixed costs considering the desired profit per unit. The cost base must be kept free of any element of fixed costs facilitating the pricing in special situations (Guilding, Drury, Tayles, 2005). In this paper the CA is not considered in detail. Absorption Cost Approach In the ACA the cost base is defined as the cost to manufacture a single unit. The selling and administration costs which are not included in the cost base are considered in the mark-up stage that is added on to the target selling price (Guilding, Drury, Tayles, 2005). The ACA illustrates the pricing decision as deceitfully easy. It seems that a company only has to calculate its UPC, determine the profit level they want and set the price. It appears that a company can ignore demand and arrive at a price that will safely yield whatever profit it wants (Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, 2010, p. 760). The ACA depends on unit sales predictions and nor the UPC nor the mark-up can be determined without them. In this approach it is anticipated that customers need the predicted unit sales and are willing to pay any price the firm stipulates. But customers have a choice as they can either purchase from a competitor or decide not to buy the product at all if the price is set too high (Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, 2010). Determine Mark-up for Absorption Cost Approach A mark-up is the percentage added to cost for profit, whereas the margin is the percentage of the selling price that is represented by profit (Collier, 2009, p. 173). The ACA and CA both bury some cost elements in the mark-up. The mark up percentage has not only to cover the buried costs but also has to generate a satisfying return on assets employed (Erner, 2010). The mark-up over cost ought to be set according to the market conditions, but many firms rest their mark-up upon desired profit and cost (Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, 2010). The formula for determining the right mark-up percentage by applying the ACA is as follows (Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, 2010, p. 759): Mark-up % = (required RoI x investment) + selling and administrative expenses / (UPC x unit sales) Adjust Price to Market Conditions The final stage considers adjusting the prices pursuant to the market conditions. The CPP usually tends to ignore the relationship between the price and the volume to be produced which in turn can result in lower profits, insufficient demand etc. Thus the sales forecasts need to be met in order for the pricing to be reliable. The final selling price may be much higher than the figure received due to the mark-up stage as companies (can) ignore the competitive positioning, promotional strategy, product differentiation, packaging etc. (Erner, 2010). Practical Example To illustrate an example  [2]  of CPP using ACA it is assumed that Company X just underwent some design modifications for their product Y and wants to set a selling price accordingly. The cost estimates are as follows: The first step in ACA is to calculate the UPC which is illustrated in the following calculation. Here it adds up to à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 23.50 per unit as a volume of 10 000 units is assumed for Company X: Several companies set their profit on costs and desired profits. This can be illustrated by using the given formula for mark-up percentage for ACA (see 2.2 Determine Mark-up). To illustrate how the formula is applied, assume Company X invests à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 100 000 in operating assets like e.g. equipment to produce and market 10 000 units of the product each year. Further suppose Company X needs 20% RoI. So the mark-up calculations are as follows: Mark-up % = (20% x à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 100 000) + (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 2 per unit x 10 000 units + à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 60 000) / (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 23.50 per unit x 10 000 units) Æ’Â   42.55% The Mark-up of 42.55% resulted to a Target Selling Price of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 33.50. Only if Company X really sells its 10 000 units at this price the products ROI will be 20%. Logically the ROI will decline if fewer products are sold. The betoken volume of sales is achieved only when the required ROI will be reached.

The Band Creed Essay -- Music Christianity Bands Papers

What If The band that comes to my mind when someone mentions abstract lyrics is the modern, popular, yet sophisticated group, Creed. I thoroughly enjoy their music, although not strictly for entertainment purposes. They have extremely creative ways of stating feelings, telling stories, and sharing ideas through the lyrics they produce. Their song, entitled "What If," is an excellent version of poetic writing that exemplifies mixed emotion and portrays an undefined depth in meaning. It is quite possible to interpret this particular song differently according to the listener's point of view and the personal background experiences that may influence their portrayal of the music. However, I see certain parallels to the Bible story of Jesus praying to God on the Mount of Olives. There are several lines that suggest the connotation of how fearful, anguished, and lonely Jesus felt before he was crucified. The very first verse is definitely the context of Jesus' pleading words of prayer to God shortly before he was betrayed and arrested. He was certainly in a state of depression, acutely aware of the fleeting minutes of freedom left for him on earth. The intense dread Jesus felt must have been overwhelming to him as he obediently kneeled in submission to God's will, desperately trying to understand His reasoning. At this particular time in the pre-crucifixion, it is only logical to associate the tremendous burden Jesus was going through with his great frustration of human ignorance and sin. Thus, the meaning of "not finding rhyme in reason, losing sense of time and seasons, and feeling beaten down, by men with no grounds," is explained to clarify the starting point of my interpretation. In the second set of phrases, the first two... ...e words of men who have no grounds I can't sleep beneath the trees of wisdom When your ax has cut the roots that feed them Forked tongues in bitter mouths Can drive a man to bleed from inside out What if you did? What if you lied? What if I avenge? What if eye for an eye? I've seen the wicked fruit of your vine Destroy the man who lacks a strong mind Human pride sings a vengeful song Inspired by the times you've been walked on My stage is shared by many millions Who lift their hands up high because they feel this We are one We are strong The more you hold us down the more we press on What if you did? What if you lied? What if I avenge? What if eye for an eye? I know I can't hold the hate inside my mind 'Cause what consumes your thoughts controls your life So I'll just ask a question What if? What if your words could be judged like a crime?

Business Plan for Import Export Company Essay -- Marketing Executive S

Business Plan for Import Export Company This business plan details the launch of a start-up company known as the Import Export Company (IEC). The company functions as a ‘middleman’ in purchasing housewares from manufacturers in China and reselling the products to retail buyers in the US and Canada. The Import Export Company is primarily an independent import/export business. The products we import from China are resold to retail buyers in the US; in addition, we export the products from China directly to retail buyers in Canada. Without maintaining inventory, the company ships the product directly from China to the US and Canada. Our product catalog focuses on housewares products that appeal to trend-minded US and Canadian consumers. Product pricing is geared toward budget-conscious consumers seeking a current look for their homes, without paying upscale prices. In 2003, China was the third largest country trading with the US, importing and exporting a combined $127 billion in goods (US Census Bureau, 2003). As of November 2003, China exported $25.1 billion in goods to the US, up 25.8% over 2002 (US Department of Commerce). The IEC has developed initial relationships with manufacturers and retailers. Our marketing plan targets a market of 160 retailers in the US that specialize in Home Furnishings and Housewares. The company has targeted fifty Canadian retailers that also meet our target market requirements. The owners are contributing $15,000 ($7,500 each) in start-up capital from personal savings, in addition to a loan of $30,000 from friends and family. The loan will be repaid at 6% interest when the company becomes stable in the second year of operations. After initial start-up expenses, the company has a starting Cash Balance of $29,880. The company is forecasting $350,500 in first year sales revenue, with a Cost of Goods projected to be 60%. Cost of Goods directly reflects our targeted 40% profit margin. We anticipate doubling our sales revenue for the first three years of operations as we develop our manufacturing and retail buyer relationships. Sales revenue increases in our second year to $701,000 and $1,402,000 in our third year. The company projects a Net Profit of $40,665 in our first year of operations, increasing to $139,944 in the second year and $317,688 in the third year. Our Cash Flow objective in the first year is ... ...c tax rate. For the purpose of estimating, we have set our tax rate at 20%. We do not forecast collecting sales tax, as our purchases are for resale and not subject to sales or use taxes. We will work closely with our bank, which was selected because of its import and export programs. Initially, we will pursue secured financing options, with the bank advancing funds by using the goods we import as collateral. If we default on our secure financing obligations, the bank takes title of our shipped goods. As we are a start-up company, we will not qualify for unsecured financing until we have established a positive credit record with our bank. We may pursue a revolving line of credit through the Small Business Administration's Special Purpose loan programs for exporters, which would allow us to receive pre-export financing through the U.S. Export Import Bank. We may also pursue factoring options. As a start-up, we are primarily focused on maintaining a positive cash flow position. For this reason, a factor that buys receivables with a cash advance in exchange for a 5% fee may be a viable option. We feel that our target profit margin of 40% provides leeway to work with factors.

Accounting Research Project: Walt Disney

| 2012| | Acc: Research Project | [The Walt Disney Company]| Ticker Symbol: NYSE:DIS A brief summary of the company’s products, history, and financial operations over the last year. | General Overview The Walt Disney Company (NYSE:DIS) is one that I have been familiar with my entire life. However, I have never known much about the business side of the company.It was founded in 1923 by Roy and Walt Disney, who came to Hollywood from Kansas City, Missouri. Walt and Roy produced a short animated film series that became known as the Alice Comedies. The small studio in which they worked was outgrown and replaced by a larger facility, where they became Disney Bros. Studio (Disney Archives). In 1928, Mickey Mouse was born, followed by Pluto, Goofy, and the rest of the Disney gang, and the Disney Brothers Studio became the Walt Disney Studio. Disney’s first full-length animated film came out in 1937.Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs became the highest grossing film by 1939 and th e first animated feature film ever produced (studioservices. go. com). During World War II, production was slow, and Disney was contracted into creating propaganda films to endorse the war and boost morale on the home front. However, in 1950, Cinderella revived the company and the Walt Disney Productions theme park plan was set in motion, opening Disneyland in 1955. Walt Disney died in 1966 of lung cancer (age 66), and his brother Roy took over as chairman, CEO and president.The Walt Disney World Resort opened in Orlando, Florida in 1971, and Disney began to make its way into live-action films. Since then, the Walt Disney Company has made its name in the family and entertainment business, becoming one of the largest and most influential companies worldwide, owning markets in China, Japan, North America, Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Australia, and Russia. The company headquarters is located in Burbank, California, headed by Chairman and CEO Bob Iger, who ook over the company in 2 005 and acquired other such productions as Pixar (2006), Marvel Entertainment (2009), and Lucasfilm (2012) (thewaltdisneycompany. com). As well as owning several media networks, hotels and resorts, Disney Consumer Products, according to the company’s website, is the business segment of The Walt Disney Company and its affiliates that extends the Disney brand to merchandise ranging from apparel, toys, home decor and books and magazines to foods and beverages, stationary, electronics and fine art.This is accomplished through a franchise-based licensing organization focused on strategic brand priorities, including:  Disney Classic Characters & Disney Baby; Disney Live Action Film; Disney Media Networks & Games, Disney & Pixar Animation Studios; Disney Princess & Disney Fairies;  and  Marvel. Other businesses involved in Disney's consumer products sales are Disney Publishing Worldwide, the world's largest publisher of children's books and magazines, and  www. DisneyStore. om  and  www. DisneyStore. co. uk, the company's official shopping portals. The Disney Store retail chain, which debuted in 1987, is owned and operated by Disney in North America, Europe, and Japan (thewaltdisneycompany. com). In recent news, Netflix announced on December 4, 2012 that it has signed a multi-year deal with The Walt Disney Company. According to the article by Ramon Aranda, this will give Netflix the exclusive rights to run feature films available for users to watch instantly.Ted Sarandos, Chief Content Officer at Netflix said, â€Å"Disney and Netflix have shared a long and mutually beneficial relationship and this deal will bring to our subscribers, in the first pay TV window, some of the highest-quality, most imaginative family films being made today†¦ It’s a bold leap forward for Internet television and we are incredibly pleased and proud this iconic family brand is teaming with Netflix to make it happen. † The article also states that the fin ancial terms of this agreement have not been disclosed.Another recent event for the company was the purchase of the Star Wars franchise Lucasfilm for four billion dollars at the end of October. 100 percent owned by founder George Lucas, an article in USA Today says Disney received the empire at a cost of $4 billion, 40 million Disney shares, and a year and half pursuit. This amount of shares makes Lucas the company’s second largest non-institutional shareholder of Disney, after the trust of Steve Jobs (Krantz, Matt, et. al). The article goes on to note that this deals marks Disney’s fourth largest deal ever, after Capital Cities/ABC (1995), Pixar (2006), and Fox Family (2001).Disney plans to expand on the Star Wars film schedule. CEO Bob Iger said, â€Å"our long term plan is to release a new Star Wars feature film every two to three years,† beginning with Episode VII hopefully releasing in 2015. George Lucas will serve as a creative consultant, but plans to ret ire, saying, â€Å"For the past 35 years, one of my greatest pleasures has been to see  Star Wars  passed from one generation to the next. It's now time for me to pass Star Wars on to a new generation of filmmakers† (Krantz, Matt, et. al).The current price per share of the company’s common stock is $48. 67. This number has fluctuated a bit over the last year, but has remained mostly close to the recent price. The lowest price over the last year has been $34. 52, with the highest price at $53. 40 (thewaltdisneycompany. com). Financial Status (2012) According the company’s most recent accounting statements (2012 fiscal year), total assets equaled $74,898; total liabilities equaled $32,940, and the total equity for the year totaled $41,958 (in millions). $74,898 = $32,940 + $41,958The company earned a net income of $5. 682 billion, an eighteen percent increase from the previous year. The earnings per share during the year 2012 increased 24 percent to $3. 13 fro m $2. 52 the prior year. Earnings per share is important because it is a measure of a company’s profitability. It is one of the most closely watched financial ratios in the business world. The revenues for The Walt Disney Company totaled $42. 278 billion, a 4 percent increase from the previous year. Two of Disney’s competitors, News Corp. and Time Warner Inc. have revenues that fall significantly lower than this corporate giant, with News Corp. revenues totaling $33. 88 billion and Time Warner Inc. at $28. 76 billion. Disney’s current assets total $13. 709 billion, with current liabilities totaling $12. 813 billion. The current ratio: 13. 709/12. 813 = 1. 07. The current ratio generally shows the ability of a company to pay back debts. However, if a company is good at managing and planning cash flows, a low number does not necessarily mean they cannot pay back its debts on time.This number has decreased compared to the previous year, which had a current ratio of 1. 13. Disney’s long-term assets include film and television costs, investments, parks, resorts, and other properties (attractions, buildings, and equipment), projects in progress, land, intangible assets, and goodwill; 82 percent of Disney’s assets are long-term. Compared to prior periods, these assets have increased (approximately $2 billion more than 2011). In addition, The Walt Disney Company calculates depreciation using the straight-line method.The long-term liabilities of The Walt Disney Company total $20. 127 billion, or 61 percent of the total liabilities, compared to 63 percent of total liabilities in 2011. Disney has over one trillion shares in circulation currently, both of preferred stock and common stock outstanding. The company saw an increase in cash and cash equivalents of $202 million, giving Disney an end of year balance of $3. 387 billion, compared to the $3. 185 billion from the previous year. According to Disney’s report, cash provided by operations increased 14 percent compared to 2011.The increase in cash provided by operations was due to â€Å"higher segment operating results and the timing of and improved receivable collections, partially offset by higher income tax payments, the payment of interest accrued in prior years on Disneyland Paris borrowings, and higher film production spending† (thewaltdisneycompany. com). Disney uses the average-cost method in order to calculate inventory, stating, â€Å"Inventory primarily includes vacation timeshare units, merchandise, materials, and supplies.Carrying amounts of vacation ownership units are recorded at the lower of cost or net realizable value. Carrying amounts of merchandise, materials, and supplies inventories are generally determined on a moving average cost basis and are recorded at the lower of cost or market. † Only a small portion of the total assets is represented by inventory. In 2012, the inventory only accounted for 2 percent of the company ’s total assets, which is consistent with the 2 percent of total assets in 2011. Work Cited A History of The Walt Disney Company. † Disney 23. Web. 12 Dec. 2012. ;http://d23. disney. go. com/archives/a-history-of-the-walt-disney-company/; Aranda, Ramon. â€Å"Netflix Announces Multi-Year Agreement with The Walt Disney Company. †Ã‚  examiner. com(2012): n. pag. Web. 13 Dec 2012. ;http://www. examiner. com/article/netflix-announces-multi-year-agreement-with-the-walt-disney-company;. Disney Studio Services. â€Å"The Walt Disney Studios History. † Web. 12 Dec. 2012. ;http://studioservices. go. om/disneystudios/history. html; Krantz, Matt, Mike Snider, Marco Della Cava, and Bryan Alexander. â€Å"Disney buys Lucasfilm for $4 billion. â€Å"USA Today. 30 2012: n. page. Web. 16 Dec. 2012. ;http://www. usatoday. com/story/money/business/2012/10/30/disney-star-wars-lucasfilm/1669739/;. The Walt Disney Company. Annual Report: The Walt Disney Company Reports Fourt h Quarter and Full Year Earnings for Fiscal 2012. Burbank: The Walt Disney Company, 2012. 15 Dec. 2012. ;http://thewaltdisneycompany. com/;